Volcanoes: Indonesia
A volcano is where magma, molten rock rising from the mantle, reaches the surface. Almost all volcanoes lie along plate boundaries: where one plate sinks under another, where plates move apart and, more rarely, above “hot spots” in the middle of a plate, like Hawaii.
- Eruption since 2000
- Eruption between 1900 and 1999
- Last eruption before 1900
- Date of last eruption unknown
- Plates move apart (ridges, rifts)
- Plates slide past each other (transform faults)
- Plates collide
- Subduction: one plate sinks under the other
Volcanoes: Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program, Volcanoes of the World. Plates: Bird (2003), version by H. Ahlenius (ODC-BY). Relief: GEBCO Compilation Group (2026) GEBCO 2026 Grid. Map: © Protomaps, © OpenStreetMap.
The words
- Holocene volcano
- A volcano that has erupted at least once in the last 11,700 years or so (the Holocene) or shows signs of activity. It is the definition of “active volcano” used by the Smithsonian.
- Magma and lava
- Magma is molten rock below the surface; when it comes out it is called lava. Fluid magma, poor in silica (basalt), gives quiet eruptions; thick, gas-rich magma gives explosive eruptions.
- Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
- Measures how large an explosive eruption is, from 0 to 8, from the volume of material ejected and the height of the eruption column. From VEI 2 upwards each step means about ten times more material.
- Where they form
- In subduction zones (Andes, Japan, Indonesia) the most explosive volcanoes form; along ridges and rifts (Iceland, East Africa) and above hot spots (Hawaii) the quieter ones, with lava flows.
The VEI scale drawn
| VEI | Material ejected | Eruption column | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | < 10,000 m³ | less than 100 m | Mauna Loa (Hawaii) 2022, lava flows |
| 1 | > 10,000 m³ | 100 m – 1 km | Etna 2010 |
| 2 | > 1 million m³ | 1 – 5 km | Etna 2022 |
| 3 | > 10 million m³ | 3 – 15 km | Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia) 1985 |
| 4 | > 0.1 km³ | 10 – 25 km | Eyjafjallajökull (Iceland) 2010 |
| 5 | > 1 km³ | over 25 km | Vesuvius AD 79; Mount St. Helens (United States) 1980 |
| 6 | > 10 km³ | over 25 km | Krakatau (Indonesia) 1883; Pinatubo (Philippines) 1991 |
| 7 | > 100 km³ | over 25 km | Tambora (Indonesia) 1815 |
| 8 | > 1,000 km³ | over 25 km | None in the last 12,000 years |
Volume and column: Newhall and Self (1982), who proposed the scale. Examples: Smithsonian eruptions (Volcanoes of the World) with that VEI. Tambora: the eruption began in 1812, the climax was in 1815.
Indonesia
- Holocene volcanoes
- 101
- With an eruption since 1900
- 66
- Deaths in significant eruptions since 1900
- 11,245
Volcanoes and eruptions: Smithsonian GVP. Deaths: NOAA. The country is the one given by the Smithsonian; for border or submarine volcanoes, the one of the location or the nearest within 200 km.
The volcanoes, from the most recent eruption
| Volcano | Type | Elevation | Last eruption | On the map |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dukono | Stratovolcano | 1,273 m | 2026 | |
| Ibu | Stratovolcano | 1,357 m | 2026 | |
| Lewotobi | Stratovolcano | 1,703 m | 2026 | |
| Lewotolok | Stratovolcano | 1,431 m | 2026 | |
| Marapi | Stratovolcano | 2,885 m | 2026 | |
| Merapi | Stratovolcano | 2,910 m | 2026 | |
| Semeru | Stratovolcano | 3,657 m | 2026 | |
| Dempo | Stratovolcano | 3,142 m | 2025 | |
| Dieng Volcanic Complex | Stratovolcano | 2,565 m | 2025 | |
| Raung | Stratovolcano | 3,260 m | 2025 | |
| Kerinci | Stratovolcano | 3,800 m | 2024 | |
| Krakatau | Caldera | 285 m | 2024 | |
| Ruang | Stratovolcano | 703 m | 2024 | |
| Suoh | Caldera | 1,000 m | 2024 | |
| Karangetang | Stratovolcano | 1,797 m | 2023 | |
| Tengger Caldera | Stratovolcano | 2,329 m | 2023 | |
| Agung | Stratovolcano | 2,997 m | 2022 | |
| Sangeang Api | Stratovolcano | 1,912 m | 2022 | |
| Iliwerung | Stratovolcano | 583 m | 2021 | |
| Sinabung | Stratovolcano | 2,460 m | 2021 | |
| Sirung | Stratovolcano | 1,347 m | 2021 | |
| Soputan | Stratovolcano | 1,785 m | 2020 | |
| Tangkuban Parahu | Stratovolcano | 2,084 m | 2019 | |
| Gamalama | Stratovolcano | 1,714 m | 2018 | |
| Rinjani | Stratovolcano | 3,726 m | 2016 | |
| Lokon-Empung | Stratovolcano | 1,580 m | 2015 | |
| Tara, Batu | Stratovolcano | 633 m | 2015 | |
| Kelud | Stratovolcano | 1,730 m | 2014 | |
| Slamet | Stratovolcano | 3,428 m | 2014 | |
| Paluweh | Stratovolcano | 875 m | 2013 | |
| Egon | Stratovolcano | 1,661 m | 2008 | |
| Gamkonora | Stratovolcano | 1,635 m | 2007 | |
| Talang | Stratovolcano | 2,575 m | 2007 | |
| Ambang | Stratovolcano | 1,795 m | 2005 | |
| Awu | Stratovolcano | 1,318 m | 2004 | |
| Papandayan | Stratovolcano | 2,643 m | 2002 | |
| Inielika | Stratovolcano | 1,559 m | 2001 | |
| Batur | Caldera | 1,711 m | 2000 | |
| Kaba | Stratovolcano | 1,962 m | 2000 | |
| Peuet Sague | Stratovolcano | 2,785 m | 2000 | |
| Ijen | Stratovolcano | 2,769 m | 1999 | |
| Iliboleng | Stratovolcano | 1,659 m | 1993 | |
| Ranakah | Lava dome | 2,288 m | 1991 | |
| Banda Api | Caldera | 596 m | 1988 | |
| Kie Besi | Stratovolcano | 1,357 m | 1988 | |
| Sorikmarapi | Stratovolcano | 2,145 m | 1986 | |
| Galunggung | Stratovolcano | 2,168 m | 1984 | |
| Colo | Stratovolcano | 404 m | 1983 | |
| Mahawu | Stratovolcano | 1,299 m | 1977 | |
| Sundoro | Stratovolcano | 3,149 m | 1971 | |
| Ebulobo | Stratovolcano | 2,096 m | 1969 | |
| Iya | Stratovolcano | 618 m | 1969 | |
| Kelimutu | Stratovolcano | 1,639 m | 1968 | |
| Nila | Stratovolcano | 781 m | 1968 | |
| Tambora | Stratovolcano | 2,850 m | 1967 | |
| Gede-Pangrango | Stratovolcano | 3,026 m | 1957 | |
| Arjuno-Welirang | Stratovolcano | 3,343 m | 1952 | |
| Ciremai | Stratovolcano | 3,039 m | 1951 | |
| Perbakti-Gagak | Stratovolcano | 1,726 m | 1939 | |
| Salak | Stratovolcano | 2,218 m | 1938 | |
| Telong, Bur ni | Stratovolcano | 2,617 m | 1937 | |
| Tandikat-Singgalang | Stratovolcano | 2,879 m | 1924 | |
| Serua | Stratovolcano | 608 m | 1921 | |
| Sumbing | Stratovolcano | 2,507 m | 1921 | |
| Banua Wuhu | Stratovolcano | -5 m | 1919 | |
| Teon | Stratovolcano | 728 m | 1904 | |
| Lamongan | Stratovolcano | 1,641 m | 1898 | |
| Wurlali | Stratovolcano | 868 m | 1892 | |
| Singkut | Caldera | 2,181 m | 1881 | |
| Tangkoko-Duasudara | Stratovolcano | 1,334 m | 1880 | |
| Guntur | Stratovolcano | 2,251 m | 1847 | |
| Merbabu | Stratovolcano | 3,118 m | 1797 | |
| Sumbing | Stratovolcano | 3,370 m | 1730 | |
| Kie Matubu | Stratovolcano | 1,713 m | 1210 | |
| Inierie | Stratovolcano | 2,245 m | 8050 BC | |
| Baluran | Stratovolcano | 1,247 m | unknown | |
| Buyan-Bratan | Caldera | 2,244 m | unknown | |
| Hiri | Stratovolcano | 687 m | unknown | |
| Ililabalekan | Stratovolcano | 1,018 m | unknown | |
| Iyang-Argapura | Stratovolcano | 3,088 m | unknown | |
| Jailolo | Stratovolcano | 993 m | unknown | |
| Karang | Stratovolcano | 1,768 m | unknown | |
| Kawi-Butak | Stratovolcano | 2,651 m | unknown | |
| Klabat | Stratovolcano | 1,968 m | unknown | |
| Lawu | Stratovolcano | 3,265 m | unknown | |
| Malintang | Stratovolcano | 1,988 m | unknown | |
| Manuk | Stratovolcano | 257 m | unknown | |
| Mare | Stratovolcano | 308 m | unknown | |
| Moti | Stratovolcano | 927 m | unknown | |
| Patah | Stratovolcano | 2,836 m | unknown | |
| Patuha | Stratovolcano | 2,422 m | unknown | |
| Penanggungan | Stratovolcano | 1,631 m | unknown | |
| Pulosari | Stratovolcano | 1,324 m | unknown | |
| Ranau | Caldera | 1,854 m | unknown | |
| Sano, Wai | Caldera | 1,319 m | unknown | |
| Talagabodas | Stratovolcano | 2,201 m | unknown | |
| Talakmau | Stratovolcano | 2,911 m | unknown | |
| Tampomas | Stratovolcano | 1,690 m | unknown | |
| Tarakan | Cones and maars | 317 m | unknown | |
| Tobaru | Stratovolcano | 1,035 m | unknown | |
| Todoko-Ranu | Caldera | 979 m | unknown |
The deadliest eruptions
| Date | Volcano | VEI | Deaths | On the map |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10 April 1815 | Tambora with tsunami | 7 | 60,000 | |
| 27 August 1883 | Krakatau with tsunami | 6 | 36,417 | |
| 1586 | Kelud | 5 | 10,000 | |
| 19 May 1919 | Kelud | 4 | 5,110 | |
| 8 October 1822 | Galunggung | 5 | 4,011 | |
| 4 August 1672 | Merapi | 3 | 3,000 | |
| 11 December 1711 | Awu | 3 | 3,000 | |
| 12 August 1772 | Papandayan | 3 | 2,957 | |
| 2 March 1856 | Awu with tsunami | 3 | 2,806 | |
| 1760 | Kie Besi | 4 | 2,000 | |
| 7 June 1892 | Awu with tsunami | 3 | 1,532 | |
| 18 December 1930 | Merapi | 3 | 1,369 | |
| 1775 | Gamalama | 3 | 1,300 | |
| 18 March 1963 | Agung with tsunami | 5 | 1,028 | |
| 1638 | Raung | 4 | 1,001 |
The world
- Holocene volcanoes
- 1,214
- Eruption since 2000
- 231
- Eruption since 1900
- 438
- Confirmed eruptions in the Holocene
- 9,918
Volcanoes: Global Volcanism Program - Volcanoes of the World 5.4.0. Eruptions: Global Volcanism Program - Volcanoes of the World 5.3.5.
Types of volcano
The shape of a volcano depends on its magma and how it erupts. The Smithsonian distinguishes many types; here they are grouped.
- Stratovolcano (726)
- The classic cone volcano, made of layers of lava and ash: it is the most common type and often the most explosive (Vesuvius, Fuji, Etna).
- Shield (113)
- Wide and low, with gentle slopes, built by flows of fluid lava (Mauna Loa in Hawaii, Piton de la Fournaise).
- Caldera (85)
- A large basin formed when the volcano collapses after emptying its magma chamber, often in a huge eruption (Campi Flegrei, Yellowstone, Santorini).
- Volcanic field (138)
- An area with many small eruptive centres, none of which dominates the others.
- Cones and maars (115)
- Small cinder or lava cones, explosion craters (maars) and fissures where lava comes out.
- Lava dome (31)
- A mound of very thick lava that piles up over the vent without flowing far.
How large eruptions are
Small eruptions are very many, huge ones very rare. Eruptions of VEI 6 or 7 can cool the world’s climate for a few years, like Tambora in 1815, followed by the “year without a summer”.
Source: Smithsonian GVP, confirmed Holocene eruptions with a known VEI. Ancient and small eruptions are recorded much less than recent ones.
The largest eruptions (VEI 6 and 7)
| Year | Volcano | Country | VEI | On the map |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1812 | Tambora | Indonesia | 7 | |
| 1257 | Rinjani | Indonesia | 7 | |
| 1610 BC | Santorini | Greece | 7 | |
| 2300 BC | Blanco, Cerro | Argentina | 7 | |
| 4350 BC | Kikai | Japan | 7 | |
| 5680 BC | Crater Lake | United States of America | 7 | |
| 6440 BC | Kurile Lake | Russia | 7 | |
| 1991 | Pinatubo | Philippines | 6 | |
| 1912 | Novarupta | United States of America | 6 | |
| 1902 | Santa Maria | Guatemala | 6 | |
| 1883 | Krakatau | Indonesia | 6 | |
| 1660 | Long Island | Papua New Guinea | 6 | |
| 1600 | Huaynaputina | Peru | 6 | |
| 1580 | Billy Mitchell | Papua New Guinea | 6 | |
| 1477 | Bardarbunga | Iceland | 6 | |
| 1280 | Quilotoa | Ecuador | 6 | |
| 946 | Changbaishan | North Korea | 6 | |
| 930 | Ceboruco | Mexico | 6 | |
| 847 | Churchill | United States of America | 6 | |
| 710 | Witori | Papua New Guinea | 6 |
Source: Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program, Volcanoes of the World. The year is the start year; for ancient eruptions it is a dating.
The deadliest eruptions in history
Eruptions kill mostly with pyroclastic flows, mudflows (lahars), tsunamis and the famines that follow. For ancient eruptions the deaths are uncertain estimates.
| Date | Volcano | Country | VEI | Deaths | On the map |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10 April 1815 | Tambora with tsunami | Indonesia | 7 | 60,000 | |
| 27 August 1883 | Krakatau with tsunami | Indonesia | 6 | 36,417 | |
| 450 | Ilopango | El Salvador | 6 | 30,000 | |
| 8 May 1902 | Pelee with tsunami | France | 4 | 28,000 | |
| 13 November 1985 | Ruiz, Nevado del | Colombia | 3 | 23,080 | |
| 4 February 1169 | Etna with tsunami | Italy | – | 16,000 | |
| 21 May 1792 | Unzendake with tsunami | Japan | 2 | 15,000 | |
| 1586 | Kelud | Indonesia | 5 | 10,000 | |
| 25 October 1902 | Santa Maria | Guatemala | 6 | 10,000 | |
| April 1784 | Grimsvotn | Iceland | 4 | 9,350 | |
| November 1790 | Kilauea | United States of America | 4 | 5,405 | |
| 19 May 1919 | Kelud | Indonesia | 4 | 5,110 | |
| 1640 | Tungurahua | Ecuador | 3 | 5,000 | |
| 8 October 1822 | Galunggung | Indonesia | 5 | 4,011 | |
| 16 December 1631 | Vesuvius with tsunami | Italy | 5 | 4,000 |
Source: NOAA NCEI, Global Significant Volcanic Eruptions Database (doi:10.7289/V5JW8BSH). Deaths: the total of the event, including tsunamis and famines when known.
The top ten countries
Most Holocene volcanoes
- United States of America 165
- Russia 106
- Japan 105
- Indonesia 101
- Chile 75
- Ethiopia 48
- Papua New Guinea 39
- Ecuador 36
- Iceland 35
- Mexico 29
Most volcanoes with an eruption since 1900
- Indonesia 66
- United States of America 52
- Japan 46
- Russia 39
- Chile 24
- Papua New Guinea 18
- Ecuador 14
- Iceland 13
- Tonga 13
- Philippines 10
Most deaths in eruptions since 1900
- France 29,526
- Colombia 23,766
- Indonesia 11,245
- Guatemala 10,425
- Philippines 4,507
- Papua New Guinea 3,504
- Mexico 2,035
- Cameroon 1,700
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1,682
- Japan 690
All countries
| Country | Volcanoes | Eruption since 1900 | Deaths since 1900 |
|---|---|---|---|
| United States of America | 165 | 52 | 73 |
| Russia | 106 | 39 | 4 |
| Japan | 105 | 46 | 690 |
| Indonesia | 101 | 66 | 11,245 |
| Chile | 75 | 24 | 106 |
| Ethiopia | 48 | 9 | 0 |
| Papua New Guinea | 39 | 18 | 3,504 |
| Ecuador | 36 | 14 | 17 |
| Iceland | 35 | 13 | 6 |
| Mexico | 29 | 6 | 2,035 |
| Argentina | 27 | 2 | 0 |
| Canada | 24 | 0 | 0 |
| New Zealand | 23 | 8 | 29 |
| Philippines | 23 | 10 | 4,507 |
| Kenya | 21 | 2 | 0 |
| Tonga | 21 | 13 | 6 |
| Guatemala | 20 | 5 | 10,425 |
| France | 18 | 9 | 29,526 |
| El Salvador | 16 | 4 | 327 |
| United Kingdom | 14 | 10 | 0 |
| Colombia | 13 | 7 | 23,766 |
| Italy | 13 | 3 | 412 |
| Nicaragua | 13 | 7 | 11 |
| Peru | 13 | 3 | 0 |
| Portugal | 13 | 4 | 0 |
| Vanuatu | 12 | 9 | 128 |
| Costa Rica | 10 | 6 | 140 |
| Yemen | 10 | 2 | 7 |
| China | 9 | 2 | 0 |
| Spain | 8 | 3 | 1 |
| Saudi Arabia | 7 | 0 | 0 |
| Solomon Islands | 7 | 3 | 0 |
| Turkey | 7 | 0 | 0 |
| Dominica | 5 | 1 | 0 |
| Eritrea | 5 | 1 | 31 |
| Greece | 5 | 1 | 48 |
| Tanzania | 5 | 2 | 0 |
| Armenia | 4 | 0 | 0 |
| Australia | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| Chad | 4 | 0 | 0 |
| Sudan | 4 | 0 | 0 |
| Algeria | 3 | 0 | 0 |
| Bolivia | 3 | 1 | 0 |
| Cameroon | 3 | 1 | 1,700 |
| Democratic Republic of the Congo | 3 | 3 | 0 |
| Honduras | 3 | 0 | 0 |
| Cape Verde | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| Comoros | 2 | 1 | 3 |
| Djibouti | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| Fiji | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Georgia | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Grenada | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| Mongolia | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Netherlands | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Norway | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| Saint Kitts and Nevis | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Samoa | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| South Africa | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| South Korea | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Taiwan * | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Uganda | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Vietnam | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| Azerbaijan | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Equatorial Guinea | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| Germany | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| India | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| Iran | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Jordan | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Myanmar | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Niger | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| North Korea | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| Panama | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Rwanda | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Saint Lucia | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 1 | 1 | 1,682 |
| Montserrat * | 0 | 0 | 24 |
| Republic of the Congo | 0 | 0 | 152 |
* Territory or country that is not one of the 195 UN states (members and observers): it appears with its data, but not in the rankings and in the “top ten” lists.
Volcanoes: Smithsonian GVP. Deaths: NOAA, significant eruptions since 1900. Only countries with at least one volcano or one death.
The indicators
- Holocene volcanoes Ranking · Map
- Earthquakes Earthquakes
- Tsunamis Tsunamis
Sources: Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program, Volcanoes of the World (to be cited); NOAA NCEI, Global Significant Volcanic Eruptions Database (public domain); P. Bird (2003), version by H. Ahlenius (ODC-BY).